the intellectual landscape surrounding sexuality in brazil offers a fascinating perspective, showcasing how theoretical concepts originating in metropolitan centers are embraced, adapted, and sometimes even challenged by local scholarship.
a notable example of this is the way judith butler's theories on the performance and embodiment of gender resonate with earlier observations by mary douglas. these ideas have significantly impacted contemporary studies of sexuality from a queer viewpoint.
butler's theoretical framework and its roots in douglas's work
judith butler, drawing inspiration from douglas's insights, posits that gender categories function as social constructs, akin to taboos, which amplify and aim to naturalize sexual difference.
this process, butler argues, reinforces heterosexuality through the ritualistic and repetitive regulation of the body's boundaries. douglas's earlier observation highlighted how bodily orifices and surfaces symbolize social limits, representing points of vulnerability that necessitate constant monitoring and control.
butler builds upon this by suggesting that the very notion of a distinct and naturalized body is a product of these regulatory mechanisms. the societal rites governing bodily passages inherently presuppose a heterosexual framework for exchange, positioning, and erotic possibility, all delineated by gender.
consequently, any disruption to these established exchanges can potentially destabilize the fundamental definitions of what constitutes a body.
from this perspective, critical examinations that expose the regulatory practices shaping bodily outlines can be seen as a form of genealogy for the concept of the "body" itself, offering a radicalized interpretation of foucault's theories.
while a more extensive exploration of this intellectual lineage is beyond the scope of this discussion, it is crucial to recognize that these concerns closely mirrored the intellectual currents in major global cities, and in some instances, even anticipated subsequent developments in queer studies and contemporary feminist thought.
advantages of localized intellectual production
the parallel development of these ideas in brazil, and indeed in other "peripheral" regions, suggests unique advantages inherent in localized intellectual production.
while some critics of the anglo-american socio-anthropological traditions of the 1970s and 1980s noted a perceived lack of attention to institutional structures and a broader analysis of power and inequality, these criticisms are less applicable to the brazilian scholars being examined here.
the reflections and analyses developed in brazil during the 1970s and disseminated in the early 1980s subsequently underwent review by numerous anthropologists in the 1990s. this period coincided with the escalating impact of the aids epidemic, which spurred a surge in studies focusing on male homosexuality in brazil, conducted by both brazilian and international researchers.
richard parker's contribution to brazilian sexuality studies
richard parker's work, particularly his book "beneath the equator," stands out in this context.
parker endeavored to systematically examine the interplay between the evolving homosexual subculture in post-aids brazil and similar communities in the so-called "center" nations. his research largely aligned with fry's arguments, reinforcing an anti-essentialist stance throughout the 1980s.
this position maintained a critical awareness of potential divergences between sexual practices, identities, and classification systems.
however, parker also notably shifted the emphasis within the hierarchical model. what fry had attributed to popular classes, parker recontextualized as "tradition," a product of brazil's distinct and singular culture and society, contrasted with a world he termed "anglo-european." this anglo-european influence, parker suggested, had shaped brazilian life for nearly four centuries, with its impact only partially receding in more recent historical periods.
parker proposed that the concept of homosexuality as a distinct sexual category is relatively novel, and that ideas associated with gay identity have emerged primarily in the final decades of the 20th century, as brazilian traditions encountered a broader spectrum of cultural symbols and sexual meanings within an increasingly globalized world system.
this perspective frames processes that were previously seen as parallel, possessing both shared and unique characteristics, within a model emphasizing cultural "influence," "importation," and "exportation." parker explicitly stated his intention to address a gap in the study of homosexuality, noting that while the processes through which categories related to sexual orientation gained prominence in western medical and scientific discourse have been well-documented, the "importation and exportation of these categories out of the anglo-european world has received hardly attention at all."
urbanization, class, and the emergence of gay identity
parker further linked the emergence of sexual identity, predicated on sexual orientation, to phenomena such as urbanization and the rise and professionalization of the middle classes.
this development led to the "importation and incorporation into the brazilian reality" of new scientific disciplines, rationalities, and novel ways of conceptualizing sexual experience. specifically, a new medical-scientific model of sexual classification was initially introduced into brazilian culture through medical, psychiatric, and psychoanalytical texts, which were subsequently translated into broader popular discourse.
this marked a fundamental shift in cultural focus, moving away from distinctions based on passive and active roles, underpinned by hierarchy and gender, towards recognizing, in line with anglo-european thought, the significance of sexual desire and, crucially, the choice of sexual object as foundational to defining the sexual subject.
in brazil, prior to the 1970s, these classificatory categories were largely confined to highly educated elites who were exposed to and influenced by anglo-european culture.
subsequently, a confluence of economic factors, including the emergence of a "pink market," and socio-political pressures, such as the activities of anti-aids groups and, to a lesser extent, the gay movement (which parker characterized as "also based in important ways upon anglo european models"), catalyzed the formation of a vibrant national gay community in the 1980s.
parker argued that brazil's persistent economic inequalities and the resulting reinforcement of its hierarchical social structure contribute to this dynamic.
the enduring presence of older, localized understandings alongside newly "imported" categories has generated a diverse array of categories and sexual types. with globalization, some of these, such as virile male prostitution and travestis, are now being exported to the united states and europe.
it is particularly in the figure of the travesti that parker identifies a significant instance of brazilian culture influencing the international gay scene.
critiques of parker's analytical framework
while richard parker's research is undeniably insightful, it also exposes a persistent, problematic analytical scheme.
firstly, it presents a risk to equate "popular" with "national" or "traditional," and to anchor brazilian "tradition" solely in the plantation mode of production. the assertion that these roles are rooted in a specific mode of production is, at best, a vague ideal typification and, at worst, an economic abstraction.
secondly, by postulating a uniquely brazilian tradition into which new, imported terms are supposedly integrated and transformed, parker inadvertently portrays brazilian and latin american cultures as fundamentally distinct from those of the metropolitan north, or at least as possessing an inherent difference.
this model implies that initial movements originate in the "center" and subsequently diffuse outwards to the "periphery." the "periphery" then imports, incorporates, and processes these influences, re-exporting them only under specific, limited conditions.
however, this perspective overlooks the more intricate activities of the "peripheries." they are not merely passive recipients; they co-produce knowledge, not only by "exporting" sexual categories but also theoretical elaborations. furthermore, it is often through these "peripheries," or in their name, that the "center" maintains its own definition and position.
the justification for the existence of networks of researchers, funding agencies, and governmental and non-governmental organizations within "the west" often relies on the perceived need to study, understand, and assist "the rest." consequently, the "central" countries' structures and identities are, in part, shaped by this relationship.
furthermore, by not fully engaging with the discontinuities and internal conflicts within the brazilian homosexual movement, parker fails to explore the complexities surrounding the question of homosexual identity and the resistance to framing homosexuality as a form of quasi-ethnicity.
the activities and agency of individuals within the movement are as crucial as economic determinants in understanding why travestis and virile male prostitutes were not entirely marginalized by the nascent "gay movement" of the 1980s.
the impact of aids and the brazilian homosexual movement
the devastating impact of the aids epidemic profoundly reshaped public discourse on sexuality, leaving a legacy of increased visibility and recognition for the pervasive presence of homosexual desires and practices within society.
in brazil, aids prevention efforts were characterized by a refusal to compartmentalize sexualities. organizations like the brazilian interdisciplinary aids association (abia) played a pivotal role in critiquing the concept of "risk groups" and fostering alliances between homosexual activists and hemophiliacs, thereby framing aids as a collective concern.
in this process, the experiences of early gay activists in the 1970s, who engaged with academics and debated the nuances of gay identity, proved as significant as the establishment of partnerships with governmental and international organizations.
it is also noteworthy that the brazilian homosexual movement in the 1980s evolved into a multifaceted configuration, encompassing a range of community-oriented groups, political factions, ngos, student associations, and even religious organizations. this diversification, coupled with intensified connections with state agencies and segmented markets, indeed contributed to the reinforcement of a classification system based on distinct sexual orientations.
however, it is also true that the proliferation of categories used to define the movement's subjects—codified in the contemporary lgbt acronym (lesbians, gays, bisexuals, travestis, and transsexuals)—emerged from a critical dialogue with alternative designations.
these include gls (gays, lesbians, and supporters), which reintroduces classificatory ambiguity to broaden inclusion, and hsh (men who have sex with men). the latter, particularly prevalent in health policy, attempts, perhaps imprecisely, to bridge the perceived gap between behavior and sexual identity.
the large-scale parades, such as the iconic rio de janeiro gay pride parade, exemplify an inclusive and politically engaged space that celebrates sexual diversity and tolerance.
ultimately, the challenges identified in certain sociological approaches appear to stem from their difficulty in fully grasping the cultural dimensions of sexual identity formation in brazil and its transformations over the period under examination.
broader considerations and ongoing debates
dennis altman's work, particularly his analysis of the internationalization of gay identities, highlights the complex interplay between global trends and local specificities.
the ongoing debates within the field reflect a continuous effort to understand the nuances of sexual experience and identity formation in diverse cultural contexts. the challenges in reconciling theoretical frameworks with the lived realities of marginalized communities remain a central concern for scholars and activists alike.
studies in the sociology of deviance, as explored by howard becker, provide foundational insights into how societies define and respond to behaviors deemed outside the norm.
judith butler's "gender trouble" and "bodies that matter" remain seminal texts in understanding the performative and constructed nature of gender and sexuality. the work of sérgio carrara on syphilis, race, and national identity in brazil offers crucial historical context for understanding public health initiatives and their intersection with social categories.
george chauncey's "gay new york" illuminates the historical development of urban gay culture, providing a comparative lens for understanding similar processes in other cities.
mariza corrêa's ethnographic research offers valuable insights into family structures and social dynamics. jurandir freire costa's studies on homoeroticism and the concepts of innocence and vice delve into the cultural and psychological dimensions of desire and its regulation.
the philosophical explorations of gilles deleuze and félix guattari, particularly their work on desire and its social organization, offer theoretical tools for analyzing power and subjectivity.
mary douglas's "purity and danger" continues to be a foundational text for understanding cultural classifications and the anxieties surrounding boundaries and contamination. louis dumont's essays on individualism provide a broad anthropological perspective on the evolution of social thought.
steven epstein's contributions to understanding the intersection of sociology and sexuality research, as well as his work on gay politics and ethnic identity, highlight the complexities of social constructionism.
regina facchini's research on the brazilian homosexual movement and the production of collective identities in the 1980s provides a crucial local perspective. isadora lins frança's work on the glbt movement and the gls market in são paulo offers contemporary insights into these dynamics.
peter fry's foundational research, including "para inglês ver," has been instrumental in shaping the understanding of identity and politics within brazilian culture.
his work with edward macrae on homosexuality provides early, critical analyses of the topic in brazil. fry's further work on mediumship and sexuality explores the intersection of religion and sexual expression.
michel foucault's seminal works on power, knowledge, and the history of sexuality, including "the archaeology of knowledge" and "history of sexuality, vol.
1: an introduction," provide essential theoretical frameworks for analyzing the construction of sexual subjects and discourses. john gagnon's interpretive approach to desire and his work on sexual deviance offer valuable sociological perspectives.
walnice n. galvão's critical analysis of false representations and joshua gamson's work on queer theory and qualitative research offer methodological and theoretical guidance.
gamson's exploration of identity movements and their potential for self-destruction raises important questions about the sustainability and evolution of social movements.
harold garfinkel's ethnomethodology provides a framework for understanding the methods people use to make sense of their social world.
james green's historical research on male homosexuality in 20th-century brazil, particularly "além do carnaval," offers a rich narrative of community formation and cultural expression. erwin goffman's sociological insights into social interaction and stigma remain highly relevant.
carmen dora guimarães and maria luiza heilborn's work on the perception of homosexuals and gender and sexual identity in egalitarian contexts, respectively, contribute to a nuanced understanding of gender roles and sexualities in brazil.
laud Humphreys's pioneering studies on "tearoom trade" offer early insights into the sociology of public sexual encounters.
janice irvine's reflections on the sociologist as voyeur highlight ethical considerations in sexuality research. annamarie jagose's introduction to queer theory provides a concise overview of key concepts and debates.
don kulick's ethnographic work on sex, gender, and culture among brazilian transgendered prostitutes offers a deeply contextualized understanding of gender performance and survival.
ruth landes's anthropological study of "a cidade das mulheres" provides insights into female social structures.
rosemary lobert's work explores the complexities of cultural communication. edward macrae's research on the construction of equality and sexual identity in brazilian politics offers a critical analysis of the "abertura" period. john marshall's examination of changing conceptions of male homosexuality and ken plummer's work on queer bodies and postmodern sexualities contribute to theoretical discussions on sexual identity.
mary mcintosh's influential essay on the homosexual role and luiz mott's research on the gay scene in salvador during the aids epidemic provide crucial historical and sociological perspectives.
laura moutinho's work on reason, "color," and desire, and steven murray's analysis of the institutional elaboration of quasi-ethnic communities, offer further dimensions to understanding brazilian sexualities.
richard parker's extensive research, including "beneath the equator" and "o negócio do michê" (the business of the gigolo), has been foundational in mapping the landscape of male homosexuality and emerging gay communities in brazil.
ken plummer's theoretical contributions on symbolic interactionism and sexual stigma provide valuable analytical tools. reiss jr.'s work on the social integration of queers and peers, and gayle rubin's ethnographic insights into urban north american gay communities, offer comparative perspectives.
steven seidman's work on the sociology of sexuality and the challenges of identity movements, alongside his examination of the complexities of social constructionism, are vital for contemporary understanding.
the tragic accounts of violence, such as the murders attributed to the "rainbow maniac," underscore the persistent dangers faced by the lgbt community in brazil, despite progressive legal frameworks. these incidents, occurring against a backdrop of homophobic violence, starkly contrast with brazil's advances in sexual discrimination laws and government initiatives to promote a "gay-friendly" image.
the vibrant participation of gay communities in cultural events like carnival further highlights the complex coexistence of progress and pervasive prejudice.